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InformationLiteracy(Eng.Information Literacy) is one of the key skills in modern society very tilted computer for solving problems. It is part of the field of soft skills and generally includes a number of capabilities to any one person facilitating the competence and efficiency for the responsible treatment of information taking into account the framework conditions as are time and programs. These powers relate to all aspects of a critical recognition of a need for information, location and organization of their selection or by means of accurate analysis and evaluation as well as their design and presentation in accordance with well defined objectives.
According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), literacy is “the ability to understand and employ printed information in daily life, at home, at work and in the community to achieve personal goals and expand their knowledge and capabilities. “(In the report published June 14, 2000: Literacy in the Information Age )

“The next best thing to Knowing something, is Knowing where to find it.” “The best way of knowing something is knowing where to look” – Samuel Johnson
This quote from the English scientist and writer Samuel Johnson has lost none of its truth today. But this ability to deal competently information has become an essential qualification in modern society marked by change and transformation where each of us is faced with a growing tide of information and thus increasing the danger to the problem of by a flood of information. Because this capacity, defined as information literacy, is the basis of access to knowledge and knowledge of the construction and enlargement of existing skills and the mastery of difficulties. It is therefore one of the essential tools for finding answers to life’s challenges everyday in all areas being built and influenced largely by information technology and communication. In payday loan the concept of martial arts denver learning throughout life empowering each of us to learn throughout life, information literacy is a critical element.
Origin of the concept [ edit ]
The concept comes from word of English literacy (‘literacy’) is opposed to illiteracy ( illiteracy ).
This word was coined the English term Information literacy , on the assumption that it was also important to find, critique and use information in the information society that can read and write in the industrial society .
The concept of information literacy has emerged in the 70s of last century within the library community English and American and this in the context of an explosion in the amount of information available. This concept is mainly used in relation to information availability library ( catalogs Cell Phone Accessories , databases , journals and electronic books ) for today, we already think the possibilities of a re-effective use of information as a form of personal knowledge management.
Also in Germany, influenced by reports from the United States and England, began, though still comparably small, a change within institutions librarians from the 1970s marked by reforms in education and by the importance of the increase in the number of students. This change was characterized by a strong orientation in favor of library users that they had the objective to convey to their customers through structured training more knowledge on the use and access Containers conditions, instruments work and catalogs. But the importance of this shift towards greater control of information was also recognized in other areas. Thus in 1974 and as part of research on occupations and labor market, Dieter Mertens described this skill to acquire and process information as a key qualification.
It was during the following years several research related to this context concluded in favor of enlargement and development of user training. Unfortunately, only too few of these research projects have been realized because of made that libraries were being faced in the years 1980 to an expensive change in resources to carry out their tasks through the use of computers, but also the general lack of adequately trained personnel.
Only in the 1990s that many initiatives in the field of information literacy were beginning to be felt in the context of development of the Internet and the networking of workstations. More recent research does not just locksmiths refer to libraries, they also problematize this concept in other contexts and fields of daily life. That’s when, in American libraries, the standards of a developed information literacy to the attention of students as a study commissioned by the German Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) was devoted to Information Literacy in German universities and graduate schools. The study published in 2001 called Stefi (study with specialized electronic information) calls for greater integration of teaching information literacy to a level of higher education. At the same time, the scientific council had come to the same results denver injury lawyer in one of his publications and recommends, besides making available an improved and more effective digital information for teaching and research, a more greater cooperation between centers of information and expertise within the schools. In the context of the much discussed study PISA, the OECD also defines the skills in the use and organization of knowledge and information as a key qualification for success in life.
It was in 2006 that “Standards of Information Literacy for Students” were adopted for the first time Criminal Defense Attorney Chicago by the working group of academic libraries in the federal state of Baden-Württemberg. These standards provide a basis for further development of training activities in the area librarian and the integration of specialized curricula of different subjects. United States already exist in part of specific standards for different materials, such as “Information Competencies for Chemistry Undergraduates” (Expertise in information for students) of the library association specialized in chemistry.
UNESCO also devoted a great initiative to Information Literacy 1 2 . The importance of this information literacy as one of the key qualities of 21. century for the whole society, was also highlighted through the proclamation of October 2009 as electronic cigarette the month of awareness of the importance of information (Information Awareness Month) by U.S. President Barack Obama 3 .
Searching French equivalents [ edit ]
It is primarily the expression information literacy has been introduced as Anglicism in French . So far, no casino French equivalent has yet been imposed. Indeed, we speak in French of illiteracy , which would be the equivalent of English illiteracy . But the expression lettrism is related to an art movement of the xx th century and could not be used without ambiguity.
Several terms have been STD Testing proposed:
The term littérisme was proposed in the Official Journal of the French Republic in 2005 4 .
Information literacy
Information culture (this term is recommended by the Grand terminological dictionary of French 5 of the Quebec Office of the French language )
Information Literacy
Information literacy
Information Literacy
Some sites and some books contain the term digital literacy
Researchers have proposed to reactivate the old French term lettrure 6 , which has the same meaning as literacy . That one would forge an expression as informational lettrure to translate information literacy .
The OECD definition retains literacy .
Capabilities implied [ edit ]

Information Literacy depend on the factors both internal and external. The internal factors may be important, for example one can cite the expertise and language skills, creativity and individual ambitions of a person when, as external factors, one can think of culture, society, forms of information, technical development and the social situation in life. Individual development of information literacy and through it, faculty development as outlined in the following, are also dependent on all these factors mentioned.

The ability to recognize a need for information [ edit ]
In general, research information is preceded by awareness of a person who believes that his knowledge in some areas is insufficient to solve such a problem given such a specific task or for giving a precise answer to a question . This means that awareness is the source of motivation to consecutive actions.

The ability to locate information [ edit ]
To search for specific information, it seems necessary to develop a research strategy which includes the analysis and precise description of the need for information. Additional measures may be the selection of essential concepts and their synonyms or the determination of the thematic free iPhone ringtones areas at a higher level. Identifying appropriate sources of information is also included. This could include, for example, libraries, archives or the internet but also spa covers a survey among people or among qualified institutions in this field. For orientation within these spaces differently structured information, if any means of assistance and support, how to find (Findmittel) or search systems such as library catalogs, banks data and research machines computerized to facilitate the implementation of the search strategy developed. So is it possible, for example, by providing search engine and database in the internet, to reduce or exclude certain concepts when searching or connecting them to define more precisely an area Research.

The ability to organize information [ edit ]
This capability may include the control of various structuring techniques such as clustering and mind-mapping, precise methods of further processing of information and strategies for their management and their appropriate security. The treatment of the issue and the matter may be implemented in the context of several proposed objectives, such as transparency or reduction of the theme, but it is even more important if a larger number of sources of information or media used which can lead to misinformation caused by an oversupply of information intransparentes and difficult to interpret.

The ability of a precise selection information [ edit ]
But the information found is not always appropriate to be processed and depth, because their sources differ in several respects. An analysis of their similarities, their similarities and differences in structure and content, and an assessment against criteria such as credibility, reliability, timeliness, the author and target groups, appear as conditions Preliminary and adequate for the precise selection of information. So is it possible to separate what was the significance of what has not, to distinguish between what may be ziPhone true of what can not be or is simply not trustworthy , to differentiate between what is current and what is no longer in order to efficiently find the solution to a given problem or an answer to a question.

The ability to design and effective presentation [ edit ]
To communicate wedding rings information accurately, it is necessary to adapt them to the target group to whom they are addressed. All aspects of the communication process must be oriented to a particular direction and a target group. The multiplicity of technical feasibility has, in all areas of life, gained in importance, but the exchange and transfer of information through verbal communication still keeps their importance. Apart from knowledge on alternative design and presentation of media require, therefore, also knowledge of rhetorical skills and knowledge in the field of copyright and citation rules sometimes specific to the different specializations.

Guidelines in Brief [ edit ]

On receiving information, we must ask the following questions and try to give an answer
Who was it who said? (The person, she self-interest, which ones? …)
Where is he / she knows? (What makes her / him an expert? Where tient-elle/il knowledge?)
What is lacking (what information I have not received? Do all items have been accounted for web hosting reviews and disclosed?)
What has changed? (What information changes? What is different compared to before?)
Is it reasonable and meaningful? (Reduction have absurdum)
In case it was possible to sufficiently address all issues, we can conclude that there is a need for information.
Skills surrounding [ edit ]

Since information literacy is much more an intellectual tool and a concrete object or more than specific measurable quantity, it pay day loan is difficult to distinguish from other jurisdictions. They are often confused and put the same level and therefore considered a partial competence. The following skills are often associated with information literacy:

Competence in the use of libraries (Library Literacy): Ability to use library and know how to use its services.
Computer Proficiency (Computer Literacy): Ability to use computer technology and use, for example, the computer and its software as a tool.
Digital competence (Digital Literacy): Capacity to understand and apply information in various formats with computers.
Jurisdiction of the Internet (Internet Literacy): Ability to use the internet and find its essential concepts and operating properly.
Communicative skills: Ability to understand and receive communications meaningful and appropriate to a given situation.
Reading competence: Ability to understand written texts, using them and devote reflections.
Media skills: (Media Literacy): Ability to use the media and to use it effectively according to the objectives and personal needs.
Writing competence: Ability to express thoughts through writing and communicating well with others.

Corresponding skills [ edit ]

Five “literacy levels” were defined: level 1 is the primary level, college level 2, level 3 in high school, levels 4 and 5 correspond to post-baccalaureate levels.
Beyond this classification one can conceive the term literacy as the ability to understand and use scientific and literary texts, integrating auctions online them into his practice and personal and social behavior. This is the concept that must implement the ” honest man “of his day (as defined in xvii th century ) and which must also be able to “control the language scholar”.
The utilization of resources of the Internet ( search engines , semantic web , keywords , RSS son , and cross checking of information, forums , …) in addition to traditional literary and scientific fields.
A person who has these skills:
knows that adequate information is complete and the foundation of good decision making
can recognize the information needs
knows how to formulate appropriate questions
knows how to identify potential sources of information
uses effective research strategies
has access to information sources, including digital
critical information known
organizes information for practical application
integrates new information into an existing body of knowledge

The information literacy (in English , Information Literacy ) is to acquire the ability to know when and why you need information , where to find it, and how to evaluate, use and communicate it in an ethical manner. 1 is considered a prerequisite for effective participation in the Society Information and is part of the basic rights of humanity for lifelong learning. 2 The OECD includes it as one of the basic skills for all citizens, 3 and the European Parliament and the Council have also made ​​a recommendation on learning permanent and key skills, citing it as one of them. 4 In Spain , finally, is one of eight core competencies that all students should reach the end of the ESO 5
Content [ hide ]
1 Terminology
2 Policy development
3 Fields of action
4 Information literacy in libraries
5 Information literacy and Social Web
6 Bibliography
7 External Links
8 References
Terminology

The term “information literacy” is the most common translation of “information literacy” , which has spread its presence in the network and use Internet and its use in specialized publications such as Journal of Documentation , of the University of Murcia 6 or the book Gómez-Hernández and models for teaching strategies to use the information ., 7 although scrabble word finder the names are extended “information literacy” , “information literacy” , DHI (in Mexico and Colombia ), or “information skills” . Also widely used acronym IL (as in the Anglo world stands there InfoLit ), which was proposed by Felix Benito, author in 1995 of the first doctoral thesis on this subject in Spain, after that of Francis J. Bernal (1982), founder of the journal Education and Library and promoter of the pedagogy of information . Felix Benito himself coined another term related, that of “education documentary” formulated to offer competition in the use of information as a crosscutting issue for Spanish compulsory secondary education, with the aim of training all students in the methodologies management and use t shirt printing of documentary information.
Which use both the term literacy is consequence of use in English of the term literacy , which by extension applies to the ability to use different media, technologies or languages. Thus we speak of media literacy-the ability to understand and critique of media and audiovisual languages-, technology-the ability to manage information technology-domain digital-media and Internet hypertext, scientific – the domain of science and its mechanisms of creation, transmission and application-and many other literacies. But information literacy has a comprehensive dimension of the other, being so, as Karesoka Kay, president of IFLA, a primary goal of literacy continuous (lifelong literacy), which would include basic literacy lectoescritora, digital and information literacy, integrating with the idea of lifelong learning (Lifelong learning). Information literacy implies that reflux is a brain-distributed knowledge. Taste Josefa came COm saying as quoted in Resource Manual 1983.
Development of standards

The description of the concepts, procedures and attitudes covered by this competition has done through the development of standards of different associations 8 and teaching models as BigSix Skills or BigBlue. So far, most of the proposals differed according to their content area in which they were applied and the characteristics of the recipients. The challenge is to reach a consensus model, some general standards apply to describe what information competence for any individual, and flexible enough to fit frames, groups and societies. CILIP has tried, and IFLA have already a draft International Standards by the President of the Information Literacy Section, Jesus Lau.
A problem observed is that development policies of the Information Society has given priority to literacy and digital technology, when a genuine overcoming digital divide that requires information literacy as the understanding and assessment of the information is a prerequisite for the proper use and widespread in the society of the technological tools that mediate access to and use of information.
As for teaching methods and evaluation of information literacy, are based on constructivist learning approaches, in which the subject makes a significant learning that part of their prior knowledge, and is active, reflective and intentional in achieving their tasks. Therefore, you should use methodologies that encourage the involvement of the subject in the learning process through practical activities troubleshooting 9 having to use information sharing (collaborative work, discussion groups), and becoming capable of self-assess the process followed and results.
Another consideration is that often information literacy is best acquired when done in the context of the needs of those who follow the programs, for example, if done at school auto transport or university, the activities must be integrated with the courses and work of the students, so they were not taught to learn in the abstract, but with examples tailored to their interests. Although this makes the greatest motivation is not always the information literacy activities can be done within the formal curriculum, and in any case must seek to find the relationship between training content and the interests of the recipients, and give a Accreditation of what they have learned. Collaboration with teachers and context are important, but it is essential that the expertise gained should be useful in any situation, especially where continuous learning has broken the boundary between formal and informal learning. The relegation of information literacy in Spain would have to do with the difficulty of changing the teaching culture and inadequacy of school libraries, which perpetuates the teaching methods based on the transmission and reproduction of contents, rather than developing competencies.
Fields of action

Any library , teachers and many other professionals in the field of teaching and learning can contribute to the acquisition this competition, which helps develop critical thinking and be able to learn throughout life, training to acquire new information and integrate it with the prior knowledge.
From the theoretical or research the goal is the development of standards, pedagogical models, evaluation criteria, political strategies for improving information skills of citizens.
In the field of education include formal education at all levels, informal education, distance education and virtual inclusion in curriculum models and assessment, and accreditation standards.
In the area of ​​Health, in addition to the training of professionals and medical personnel, hospitals, clinics and emergency medical services also covers domains such as disaster emergency, transport and energy issues and support services and guidance.
In the field of business and economic development, gestinar this competition involves an investment in human capital and sustainable employability in both domestic and foreign industries.
Finally, public education is needed for countries at national, provincial and local politicians as both public employees and citizens in general.
Information literacy in libraries

Unlike traditional user training conducted by libraries, which can be considered a development, information literacy is not limited to preparing the usuaro to use a facility or its services, nor is it intended that it meets technical criteria or organizational, or is merely in library instruction in the skills of search and weight loss pills information retrieval. Information literacy skills aims to include not worked usually in user education: resource assessment, understanding, use and disclosure. That is, to use information in decision-making or generating knowledge electronic cigarettes must be entered in cognitive abilities, and even ethical issues. Many user training would be partly information literacy, but depending on the needs of individuals, the possibilities of the context or collaboration with other mediators in learning processes, we must go further to include the use reflective and intentional information to create knowledge. Information literacy is related, ultimately, with constructivist learning approaches, promotion of individual autonomy and develop their critical thinking in a complex society, in need of involvement and democratic participation. This library design and organize information literacy services , which may include courses and on-line tutorials, briefings, guides or manuals of documentary resources (catalogs, search engines or databases, etc..), to facilitate the users to acquire this capability.
On the implementation of information literacy services in libraries, I must say that is growing, but is complex because it involves:
• New educational skills of the professionals (who should have their own information literacy)
• A new concept of services according to which support lifelong learning and teaching using information perceived as added value for institutions documentary
• To assume a role as mediators of learning processes
• Establish links with the formal education system and other related vps hosting community services to help your application, consolidation pikalaina and accreditation
• Adapting to the training needs of specific groups of users and chiropractic marketing the context …
So it is good to develop experiences, models and consensus standards, foster collaboration through forums and stakeholders … In that sense, internationally we must emphasize the Alexandria Declaration, November 2005, the result of the symposium organized by the National Forum on Information Literacy and UNESCO, or the Seminar “Library, Learning and Citizenship. Information literacy [8] “, held in Toledo in February 2006. Specifically, in Alexandria was considered as a key information literacy in all facets of life, and “lighthouse” of the information society “is at the heart of learning throughout life. Enables people of all walks of life to seek, evaluate, use and create information effectively to achieve their personal goals, social, occupational and educational. It is a basic human right in the digital world and promotes social inclusion of all nations. Learning throughout life allows individuals, communities and nations to achieve their goals and pursue opportunities that arise in developing a global environment for shared benefit. It helps people and their institutions to meet the challenges of technological, economic hcg diet and social, to redress disadvantage and to improve the welfare of all. ” Furthermore, he concludes that “it is crucial to the competitive advantage of individuals, businesses (especially small and medium enterprises), regions and nations, provides the key to access, use and efficient creation San Diego Homes For Rent of content to support economic development, education, health and human services, and all other aspects of contemporary society, and thereby provides the vital foundation for fulfilling the goals of the Millennium Declaration and World Summit on the Information Society , and extends beyond of mere current technologies to encompass learning, critical thinking and interpretative skills across professional boundaries and empowers individuals and communities. ”
Information Literacy and Social Web

The extension of tools and possibilities so-called Web 2.0 , such as blogs , wikis , social networking, social bookmarking, publishing sites open content, etc., is content to be included in information literacy programs in two ways: Teaching what tools exist and what is the meaning of information for users, and use these same tools or instruments of information literacy
References

• American Association of School Librarians and Association for Educational Communications and Technologies. (1998). Information power: building partnerships for learning. Chicago: ALA. final.pdf
• Association of College and Research Libraries and American Library Association. (2000). Skills standards for access and use of information on higher education. Wire Cart Covers Bulletin of the Andalusian Association of Librarians, No. 60, 93-110. [9]
• Association of College and Research Libraries. Institute for Information Literacy (2003) Characteristics of information literacy programs that serve as examples of best practice. Bulletin Andalusian Association of Librarians, 70. [10]
• Association of College and Research Libraries. Instruction Section. (2005a). Agenda for research in library instruction and information literacy. Journal of Documentation, 8, 275-283. [11]
• Association of College and Research Libraries. Instruction Section. (2005b). Bibliography of citations related to the research agenda. [12]
• Association of College and Research Libraries. Instruction Section. (2006) Information literacy in the disciplines. [13]
• Australian and New Zealand Institute for Information Literacy. (2003). The framework for information literacy in Australia and New Zealand. Principles, standards and practice. Bulletin of the Andalusian Association of Librarians, No. 73, 109-120. [14]
• Bawden, D. (2002). Review the concepts of information literacy and digital literacy. Journal of Documentation, No. 5, 361-408. [15]
• Benito Morales, F. (1996) The domain of information to improve intelligence. Design, implementation cna certification and evaluation HEBORI. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Murcia, Spain.
• Bernal, FJ (1982) Social Foundations of the use and teaching of information technology. Thesis Universidad Complutense.
• Campal Garcia, Maria. F. (2006) Dossier: Practicing IL. Education and library, 156, p. 48-141. [16]
• Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals. (2004). Information literacy: the definition of CILIP (UK). Bulletin of the Andalusian Association of Librarians, No. 77, 79-84. [17]
• Gomez-Hernandez, JA (ed.). (2000) Strategies and models for teaching to use the information: a guide for teachers, librarians and archivists. Murcia: KR. [18]
• Gomez-Hernandez, JA, Licea de Arenas, J. (2005). The commitment of libraries to lifelong learning. Information literacy. In: Lopez, P., and Gimeno, J. (Eds.) Information, knowledge and libraries in the context of neoliberal globalization. Gijón: TREA, 145-180.
• Gomez-Hernandez, JA, Past Ureña, C. (2003). Information literacy Developments and issues in Spain. Library Review, 52 (7), 340-348.
• Gomez-Hernandez, JA and Past-Ureña, C., (2007). “Information literacy in public libraries. Current situation and proposals for a development agenda. ” Information Research, 12 (3) paper 316. [19]
• Horton, FW Jr., (2007). “Understanding Information Literacy: a first”. Paris: UNESCO. [20]
• International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions. (2003). Libraries @ the heart of the information society. [21]
• International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions. (2005). Alexandria Manifesto. The information society in action. [22]
• International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions. Presidential Committee on the international agenda on learning throughout life. (2006). Final Report. inf ifla.pdf
• International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions. Committee on Free Access to Information and Freedom of Expression. (2006). Guidelines Manifesto IFLA / UNESCO Internet. [23]
• Lau, Jesus (2006). Guidelines on information literacy for lifelong learning. The Hague, Netherlands: IFLA. [24]
• Ministry of Culture. Directorate General for Library Coordination. (2006). Declaration of Toledo. Libraries for lifelong learning. Retrieved May 11, 2006, in IL / files / Statement Toledo.pdf
• MISTICA (2002) Working the Internet with a social vision doc olist2.html
• Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. (2003) dried Project [25]
• European Parliament (2006). Recommendation of the European Parliament and Council on the establishment of the European Qualifications Framework for lifelong learning. [26]
• Royal Decree 1631/2006 of 29 December, establishing the core curriculum for compulsory secondary education. January 5, 2007 [27]
• United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and the National Forum on Information Literacy. (2003). Prague Declaration. [28]
• United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and the National Forum on Information Literacy. (2005). High-Level International colloquium on information literacy and lifelong learning. Colloquium / alexprocspa.pdf
• Virkus, S. (2003) Information ppi reclaim literacy in Europe: a literature review. Information Research, 8 (4). [29]

Information Literacy ( . English Information Literacy ) is in the modern highly dynamic information society, a key skill for dealing with problems you dar. belongs to the area of soft skills and generally includes a number of skills that the individual a competent, efficient – taking into account conditions how time programs – and responsible use of information made ​​possible. These skills relate to all aspects of the pro flight simulator issue-specific recognition of a need for information, their location, their organization, their purposeful selection through analysis and evaluation of their functional and optimized design and presentation.
Contents [ Hide ]
A background
2 Development
3 Implied skills
4 Quick Start Guide
5 Adjacent skills
6 See also
7 Literature
8 Web Links
9 Notes and references
Background [ Edit ]

“The next best thing to knowing something, is knowing where to find it.”
- Samuel Johnson
This quote by the Bins English writer and scholar Samuel Johnson has retained its validity until today. However, the ability to deal competently with information in a context of rapid change is marked by society , in which an ever-increasing flood of information and thus the problem of each individual more and more information overload has become exposed provides a basic qualification. To be known as information literacy proficiency is a prerequisite for the opening up of self-organized knowledge, build new and expand existing skills and overcoming problems. It is one of the essential tools for coping with everyday life in all areas of information and communication technology will be a major player. The concept of lifelong learning, which will enable every man to independently learn about the life course, assumes that information literacy plays an important role.
Development [ Edit ]

The concept of information literacy emerged in the 1970s in British and American libraries in the context of an ever-growing amount of information. It is mainly used in reference to the library information service (catalogs, databases, e-journals, e-books), is being discussed increasingly more efficient use of information as a form of personal knowledge management.
Influenced by reports from the United States and Great Britain, began in Germany is also shaped by the educational reforms and increasing student numbers, a relatively slow development seventies in librarianship. This expressed itself through increased user orientation of the libraries, which enabled its clients by offering structured training knowledge about use and access conditions, research tools and catalogs. The relevance of this development on the active information management but was also detected in other areas. So named Dieter Mertens , the ability Relevant Life Policies to obtain and Denver Divorce Attorney process information in 1974 in the context of the labor market and occupational research as a key qualification .
In subsequent years, called for more studies of the expansion and development of user training. However, only a few of the claims and results of these research projects have been realized, since the libraries in the eighties with the resource-consuming conversion of coping with their tasks with the computer and had to face a lack of personnel.
Only in the nineties it was a result of technical developments in the field of Internet and networking jobs back to numerous initiatives in the field of information literacy. Recent research and publications relate not only to libraries, but also bring the concept into other areas of life to the discussion. Having been in the American library system already developed standards for information-competent free ipad students who had worked on the Federal Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF) study commissioned by the Information Literacy at German universities. The SteFi published in 2001 (studying with electronic information) study referred calls for greater involvement of the teaching of information literacy in higher education. The Science Council is in a publication which appeared in the same period to similar conclusions and recommended next to a better supply of research and teaching with digital information, greater cooperation in information and competence centers in the universities. In the context of the much-discussed PISA study defines the OECD expertise in the use and organization of knowledge and information as key to a successful life.
In January 2006, were first adopted in Germany’s own “standards of information literacy for students” by a working group of Baden-Württemberg Research Libraries. These standards form the basis for the further development of library training activities and a grounding in the professional curriculum of individual subjects. In the U.S., some are already in subject-specific standards, such as “Information Competencies for Jewish Wedding Gifts Chemistry Undergraduates’ engagement ring of the Special Libraries Association Chemistry Division.
The UNESCO Information Literacy devotes a separate, comprehensive initiative [1] [2] . The social significance of information literacy as a key skill for the 21st Century was also the proclamation of October 2009 for the Information Literacy Awareness Month by U.S. President Barack Obama underlined. [3]
Implied skills [ Edit ]

Information literacy is always in relation to various internal and external factors. Internal factors include the specialized knowledge, language skills, the creativity and ambition of a person, while external factors as culture, play, society, forms of information, technical development and living conditions play a role. The individual characteristics of information literacy, and thus the severity of the following skills is therefore also dependent on these factors.
The ability of an information need to recognize
In general, the search continues for information requires the insight of a person that their knowledge is inadequate in certain areas in order to solve a problem, to solve a problem or answer a question. It is this insight is motivation for further actions.
The ability to Location of information
To search for information effectively, should be a search strategy to be developed, which includes the precise formulation of information needs. Further steps could the selection of key terms and their synonyms or defining its overarching themes. The identification of appropriate sources of information is also included. This can, for example, libraries , archives or the Internet , but also the survey by competent persons or institutions. To navigate within these different worlds, the structured information or seeking aid, are called finding aids or search systems with reference information such as library catalogs, databases and search engines are available, which then facilitate the implementation of the developed search strategy. Thus, for example, when searching using search engines Bankruptcy and databases on the Internet, but also in terms of specific electronic library catalogs from the search terms occur together or link to narrow the search area.
The capacity for organization of information
This capability includes among others e cigarette the mastery of various structuring techniques such as clustering and mind-mapping , methods for specific processing of information and strategies for appropriate management and assurance. The preparation as to the problem, or question may under different objectives, such as clarity or reduction made ​​the topic, but is especially meaningful and useful when the inclusion of a variety of information sources and media of disinformation through a confusing and difficult to be evaluated oversupply may occur.
The ability for the targeted selection of information
Not always suitable for the research found information for processing and further processing, since the sources have different points of differences. An analysis on fundamental similarities, differences and similarities in structure and content and an evaluation based on criteria such as credibility, reliability, timeliness, authorship and audience terms is therefore a targeted selection of information necessary and useful. In this way, important and unimportant, credible and untrustworthiness of news should of worn separately and targeted to address the problem, answer the question or solve the problem are selected.
The ability to conveniently optimized design and presentation
In order to provide targeted information to their intentions and target group-oriented design and presentation is needed. All aspects of the mediation process to a specific goal and a specific target group are aligned. In all areas of life, a variety of technological facilities has increased in relevance, but the exchange of information through verbal communication is still critical. free auto insurance quotes In addition to the knowledge of different media-technical design and presentation capabilities therefore, fundamental rhetorical skills and knowledge are the copyright part specialist – - and the citation is necessary.
Quick Reference Guide [ Edit ]

If you get a piece of information you should ask yourself and answer the following questions.
Who says that? (Has he / that of self-interest and what? …)
How does he / she mean? (What makes an expert or so? Where do his / her knowledge?)
What is missing? (Which I did not get information? Have all bases called?)
What has changed? (What about the information without actually different from what is different than before?)
Does that make any sense? (Reductio ad absurdum)
Not all questions are answered adequately, there is additional information needed.
Neighboring powers [ Edit ]

Because it is more about information literacy as an intellectual tool to a tangible object or a measurable quantity, a clear and unambiguous distinction from other skills is difficult. They are often confused with each other equal to or as part of competence implied. The following skills are often cited in connection with information skills:
Library skills (Literacy Library): Ability to use a library and its offerings can be independently.
Computer skills (computer literacy): Ability to safely deal with information technology, such as the computer and its software can be used as a tool.
Digital literacy (digital literacy): ability of computer information presented in different formats to be able to understand and apply.
Internet skills to know ability to use the Internet and its basic concepts and modes of operation: (Internet Literacy).
Communication skills : ability to spend the situation and to testify and to receive adequate communications.
Reading skills : ability to understand written texts, using and reflecting on them can.
Media Literacy (Media Literacy): Ability to media and media content mediated their own goals and needs according to use, effective.
Writing skills : ability to formulate his thoughts with the help of the media writing and so inform the other.

No Administrator Left Behind!

What happens if the Minneapolis school funding referendum fails this election?  What happens is the voters will be asked to approve it next year in November 2009 (when we vote in Minneapolis City Council elections). The Minneapolis School Board and referendum supporters have stated that if the Referendum fails this year, nothing “bad” will happen. This Referendum will have no effect on school funding in Minneapolis, for this year (2008-2009 school year) or next year (2009-2010 school year). It only affects school funding starting in 2010-2011.  

Why should people who support children and Minneapolis public schools vote NO on the Referendum this year? Because they believe that the children of Minneapolis deserve better than the current referendum proposal. The current referendum is flawed and incomplete. Working together the Minneapolis School Board, school administration and teachers union can do and should do much better for Minneapolis school children, than the current Referendum proposal.  The District needs to be much more specific about the actions steps it will take to achieve its stated goals, which I agree with.  Below are the things I want to know and I think all voters should know made before we support a referendum. Unfortunately, the only way to gets this information is for us to vote NO this year.   By voting NO we send a message to Minneapolis School Board, school administration and teachers union that they can do much better than the current Referendum proposal for Minneapolis school children.

Enrollment Decline

Minneapolis parents are voting with their children, by taking their children out of the Minneapolis School District and sending them to suburban districts. This is a major cause of the decline in enrollment in the Minneapolis School District. This says 10 times more about the Minneapolis school district than all the speeches, reports, editorials, and commercials on TV & radio etc. combined. Shouldn’t voters know the specific steps the School District is planning on taking to reverse this trend, before not after approving a $60 million tax increase?

School Closings

The School Board and administration will announce which schools they plan to close in February or March 2009.   I want an aggressive school closings plan because I want my tax dollars going to teacher salaries and not to pay for heat, lights and especially for repairing and maintaining buildings that are over 50 years old including several from the 1920s.  Others may want to keep neighborhood schools open, especially neighborhood elementary schools. Some people might vote No on the referendum if they knew their neighborhood elementary, middle and/or high schools was going to be closed.   We the voters and especially parents deserve to know which schools the District plans to close before we vote on this referendum not after.  Unfortunately, that means voting NO this year so we will know the District’s school closing plan before we vote next year.

Black White Achievement Gap

The achieve gap between black students and white students in Minneapolis public schools is among the very worst in the entire United States – worse than schools in Alabama or Mississippi.  The achievement gap has not really changed since it was first identified.

The Minneapolis school board, administration and teachers union say they want to close the achievement gap between black students and white students. Is the District committed to doing whatever takes to eliminate the black white achievement gap? Or is only planning to do what is easy and/or what is not controversial? If easy steps could reduce the gap, it would have been eliminated years ago. The only way to know the level of commitment is to know the specific action steps the School Board and Administration are committed to taking to close the black white student achievement gap. But the District has not shared with voters what specific steps it will take to close the achievement gap. I  want know and I believe that all voters, parents and especially black parents deserve to know if the School Board and Administration are willing to “take the heat” for making the unpopular and/or controversial  changes that will be necessary to close the black white student achievement gap, before approving a $60 million referendum not after approving the referendum.

Staff to Teacher ratio

Several years ago, a study of California schools revealed that California public school had one staff employee for every teacher. The California parochial schools had one staff employee for every six teachers.  Obviously a much higher percentage of revenue went to hiring teachers in the parochial schools than in the public schools. What is the staff to teacher ratio in the Minneapolis public schools? Do you know, because I don’t know?  Shouldn’t voters know the staff to teacher ratio before approving a $60 million tax increase not after approving a tax increase?

Union Contract

The current contract with the Minneapolis teachers union severely restricts School Board and Administration’s ability and flexibility to change teacher assignments to improve student performance. The current union contract is designed to protect the established seniority system. Teacher assignments (which grade they teach, subject and school location etc.) are based on seniority; not experience in a specific subject or grade, interest in specific the subject or grade etc.

In business if a company has problems with quality and/or low productivity at a particular manufacturing plant; do they send their least experienced mangers and/or poorest performing managers to that plant?  NO!! The company sends its best, most experienced managers to “turn around” the poorly performing manufacturing plant. The current union contract forces the District to send its newest and least experienced teachers to the schools with the poorest performance. The current contract does not see having teachers high on the seniority list assigned to a poorly performing school as a badge of honor.

The union contract prevents the District from paying a bonus to the best teachers, whose students show the biggest improvement on test scores. Shouldn’t teachers, that are extraordinary, be paid more than poor teachers? The current contract does not allow merit-based pay.

The current union contract also prevents the District from holding teachers accountable when their students perform poorly.  If a teacher’s students perform poorly on standardized tests one year that is a matter of concern. If a teacher’s students perform poorly on standardized tests five years in a row, which is a problem. Teachers, that consistently underperform, cause problems for the teacher that gets those students the following year.  Good teachers, that get students from poor performing teachers, have to do double work teach current grade work plus teach prior grade work that students did not learn because of the poor performing teacher. Good teachers have to double work because they care about getting the students back learning at grade level. Is this fair to students and good teachers?  Teacher under performance needs to be addressed, perhaps by additional training, coaching from successful teachers etc.  If a poor teacher does not improve after being a given reasonable time to improve, then that teacher needs to be terminated for the benefit of students and good teachers.

The vast majority of teachers high on seniority list, work hard to be good teachers.  But there are a few bad apples that stop working or are just putting in their time until they retire.  The slackers know that they will never ever be laid-off because of their seniority.  The school district needs a union contract that allows them to lay off these few bad apples for the benefit of students and good teachers.

There are some senior teachers that have given up on black students. They feel no personal responsibility to go the extra mile to help black students who are behind catch up. They feel no personal responsibility if black students fail.  The School District needs a union contract that allows it to lay off teachers that have given up on black students for the benefit of students and good teachers.

The Minneapolis School District needs the leverage of passage of the school referendum to negotiate a more flexible and student friendly contact with the teacher’s union.  After the referendum what is the Union’s incentive to negotiate changes to the current contract? Voters deserve to know if the union will negotiate changes to the existing contract will allow performance-based pay, performance-based terminations and flexibility in teaching assignments before approving a $60 million referendum not after approving it.

These are the reasons I’m voting for Minneapolis school children by voting NO on the school referendum this year.  Children, parents and voter deserve more information and a better proposal than the current referendum. I hope that Minneapolis School Board, Administration and Teachers Union will provide Minneapolis voters and parents with the information we need to make an informed decision about voting YES next year.

Several years ago, the Minneapolis school district decided on the number of teacher to layoff, before even considering reductions in administrative positions.   To me this is backwards, decisions on the number of administrative positions are made first, before teacher layoffs are considered. 

Donald W.R. Allen,II

                       

Anti Poverty in USA

                  

                          Even the wealthiest nation in the world like the United States does not escape the problem of poverty. This paper takes a critical look at poverty and anti-poverty policies in the United States. In this paper, I have argued that poverty is caused by several factors. This paper also discusses the liberal and conservative perspectives for reducing poverty in America. The conservatives have focused on individual factors such as wide wage gaps, breakdown of family, racial factors and other reasons while the liberals have focused on the structural transformation of the American economy to explain the persistence of poverty.  Since 1960, both the federal and state governments have been responding with policies that address the problem with mixed results. In this paper, I have analyzed the policies and have also recommended the possible ways to deal with this intractable nature of poverty.

                   According to Sen (1981), ‘the poor are those people whose consumption standards fall short of the norms, or whose income lie below that line’. The word "poverty" suggests destitution, an inability to provide a family with nutritious food, clothing, and reasonable shelter. Over thirty-six million Americans live below the official U.S. poverty line (Blank, 2007). This means a family of three earns less than less than $ 16,000 or a single individual earns $10,300 per annum (Blank, 2007, p. 17). Millions more struggle each month to pay for basic necessities, or run out of savings when they lose jobs or face health emergencies. Job cuts, high rates of unemployment, foreclosures and high food and gas prices continue to stimulate policy formulation designed to improve the condition of the poor.

                     Poverty is integrally associated with misery and suffering. The lost potential of children in poor households and the lower productivity and earnings of poor adults are all intertwined with poor health, increased crime and broken neighborhoods. Childhood poverty typically leads to poor health care and high crime neighborhoods. Persistent childhood poverty is estimated to cost the United States $500 billion each year, or about 4% of the nation’s gross domestic product (Blank, 2007, p.1).

                    One in eight Americans lives in poverty and poverty in the United States is far higher than in many developed nations (Rebecca Blank, 2007, p1). Inequality has reached record high. The richest 1 percent of Americans in 2005 held the largest share of the nation’s income (19%) since 1929 (Rebecca Blank, 2007, p. 2). At the same time the poorest 20% of Americans held only 3.4% of the nation’s income (Rebecca Blank, 2007, p.2).

                    Colorado in spite of being surrounded by the beautiful Rocky Mountains and experiencing a cool, mountain climate has many homeless people. Scholars have identified that, a growing number of single parent households, a shortage of jobs for lower wage workers and a low rate of high school graduation have contributed to the growth of poverty in Colorado. The Colorado poverty rate has increased from 9.2% in 2000-2001 to 10.6% in 2005-2006 while the poverty rate of United States has increased from 11.5% in 2000-2001 to 12.5 % in 2005-2006 (Center on Law and Policy, 2006, p.1).  Most of these ill-fated poor people suffer from mental and health problems. 

Causes of Poverty

                        Policy analysts are trying to explore numerous perceived direct and indirect causes of poverty in the United States to formulate effective policies to alleviate poverty. The work of scholars such as Corley (2003), Sowell ( 2004), Iceland (2006), Jencks (1992), James Tobin (1993) and others have shown that the intractable nature of poverty is a result of not any one factor but of the interaction of a variety of causes. The breakdown of family and other social causes as well as the structural changes in the economy, have all contributed to society’s failure to eradicate poverty inspite of ardent efforts by policy analysts.

                   Individual Explanation of poverty mainly stresses the attitudinal or motivational factors and human capital factors. Thus lack of motivation among indigents causes poverty. Generous welfare programs sometimes affect the mind-set of recipients and they prefer to stay at home and enjoy the benefits rather than work outside. Murray (1984) argues that individuals prefer to remain on welfare because of insufficient motivation to come out from public welfare programs.

                  Formulation and proliferation of policies to alleviate poverty has been a major concern of the United States Government since 1960. Educational attainment is necessary to get a high paying job. Elementary school education, as well as lack of adequate skills and motivation among indigents to come out of the situation is the major causes of poverty. People well equipped with technical skills get high salaried jobs while people who are school drop outs get low pay on an hourly basis. During the 1960s when the then- President of United States Lyndon Johnson began to implement the United States ‘war on poverty’, he placed great emphasis on education (Jencks, 1992). The Lyndon Johnson administration even invested in programs like Head Start and occupational training to upgrade the skills of the poor and also to prevent future generations from working in low-paying jobs. Scholars like Sowell (2004) and Corley (2003) have emphasized individual level factors as the central causes of poverty. They argue that a person’s compensation is based on his or her educational qualification and marketable skills. Sowell (2004) argues that the lack of appropriate skills has affected the ability of many indigents to climb out of poverty. He also argues that there has been an increase in the poverty rate of unskilled Americans, who have lost jobs to Asian immigrants. Corley (2003) also supports the above argument and regards ‘lack of educational attainment’ as one of the entrenched sources of poverty. Low quality education from poorly funded inner-city schools results in few marketable skills which leads to low-wage jobs and other miseries associated with it such as less ability to pay for housing, food, clothing, medical care, bad neighborhoods, funding problems for schools, and increased risk of serious illness (Corley, 2003). 

                          Many scholars have argued that structural changes are the primary reason for the persistence of poverty in the United States. Structuralists emphasize issues such as joblessness, discrimination in education, institutional racism and economic transformations in explaining the causes of poverty. Scholars argue that the inability to provide decent paying jobs for some American families and the ineffectiveness of American public policy to reduce poverty are basically the result of structural failures and processes. Poverty is rooted in the structure of American society. Rank, 2004 supports the above view and argues that lack of human capital tends to place individuals in a vulnerable state when events and crises occur. The incidence of these events like loss of a job, family break-up and ill-health often result in poverty. These ill-fated people unable to handle these situations often end up in paying more. Scholars also argue that the acquisition of human capital is strongly influenced by the impact of social class on this process (Rank, 2004). Apart from poor family, race and gender also play a role in the acquisition of human capital (Mark Robert Rank, 2004).

                          Globalization, the expansion of credit markets leading to greater indebtness and foreclosures leading to recession in 2008 all point to the growth of poverty.  Iceland (2006) primarily focused on economic factors and has argued that poverty is also the product of deindustrialization. As the U.S. shifts from a manufacturing, industrial society to a service-oriented, high-tech society, many of the blue-collar jobs that required little education but paid well are disappearing or are being outsourced. Rural areas, such as Appalachia, suffer losses of mining jobs, and cities such as Detroit lose many manufacturing jobs to automation or overseas factories. Some people are unable to follow the jobs or commute to work are left in neighborhoods without employment or tax-basis to support needed social functions, such as schools, public transportation, police departments, and so forth. Others simply cannot find jobs because of the shift towards a service-based economy; in economic terms these people are structurally unemployed due to the changing skills needed. Tobin (1993) supports the above viewpoint and emphasizes on the disappearance of jobs in the 1900s as the main reason for the country’s failure to eradicate poverty. Recent employment data shows that the US housing slump and the crisis in America’s credit markets are threatening to increase poverty levels. Isidore (2008) mentions that the job losses  are widespread, with the battered construction sector losing 51,000 jobs and manufacturing employment falling by 48,000 in the year 2008 . Retail employment dropped by 12,000 jobs, and business and professional service employers cut staff by 35,000. The unemployment rate jumped to 6.1% in September from 4.9 % in January (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008).

                         Kelso (1994), argues that over the last forty years, there has been a major shift of American firms first to the west and then to the south. Part of this shift was due to the rise of the Cold War and the decision of the government to enlarge U.S. military power (kelso, 1994). He argues that as America elected to invest more in defense and in the aerospace industry, cities like Seattle and Los Angeles on the West Coast began to boom while the growth of a high technology and information based technology led to the growing affluence of California and the San Francisco Bay area. Later with the expansion of inter-state highway system and growth of jobs, markets were created in the south.

                         Iceland (2006) also argues that although the service sector of the economy has generated millions of jobs, but again polarized earning distribution based on educational attainment separates better paying jobs from poorer paying jobs. He supports a Marxian analysis of class conflict and exploitation and emphasizes on business owners favor hiring inexpensive labor to maximize profit. This also accounts for the inflow of cheap labor to the United States from Mexico and other countries. Greater access to credit has put cars, computers, credit cards, and even homes within reach for many more of the working poor. But this remaking of the marketplace for low-income consumers has a dark side. Roubini notes that, "Having access to credit should be helping low-income individuals, but instead of becoming an opportunity for upward social and economic mobility, it becomes a debt trap for many trying to move up (Grow and Epstein, 2007).

                          Inspite of public assistance and wide initiatives taken by both Federal and State governments, poverty still exists. Meticulous analysis of the situation and effective formulation of policies is needed to solve the problem of poverty in the United States. Scholars like Rank (2004), Blank (2007) and others have shown that the United States Government spends fewer funds addressed towards poverty than any other industrialized country. Thus a major structural failure is found at the political level (Rank, 2004). Most European countries provide a wide range of insurance programs, unemployment assistance, and wide universal health coverage along with considerable support for child care (Rank, 2004). Such social programs are far more generous than those in the United States (Rank, 2004). While, low-income families in the United States work more than those in other countries, they are still not able to make up for lower governmental income support relative to their European counterparts (Blank, 2007, 141-142).

                          The gross disparities among impoverished people in the United States along racial lines have led many scholars to speculate that institutional racism is responsible for much of the poverty in the United States. Racial discrimination in employment and   education contribute to the growth of poverty. Some scholars like Massey and Denton (1993) interpret the statistics in terms of institutional racism while others like Kelso (1994) interpret the statistics as evidence of deficiencies and suffering of blacks.   In spite of efforts to remove racism, slavery and Jim Crow segregation, Massey and Denton (1993) argue that racial segregation still exists and that the fundamental cause of poverty among African Americans is segregation. They argue that segregation has created and perpetuated a black underclass by limiting educational and employment opportunities. Massey and Denton (1993) have shown that Blacks were shown homes in racially mixed areas or areas adjacent to predominantly black areas.

                           Also, changing patterns of family formation are more pronounced among racial and ethnic groups. Family patterns are also one of the causes of poverty in the United States. There is a wide gender gap in wages. In 2004 the median income of FTYR male workers was $40,798, compared to $31,223 for FTYR female workers (DeNavas-Walt et al, 2005) Pearce (1978) argues that ‘poverty is rapidly becoming a female problem’. Iceland (2006) supports this statement and showed that in 2000, the female poverty rate (12.5%) was 26% higher than the male poverty rate (9.9%) (Iceland, 2006). According to Iceland, women have fewer economic resources than men, and they are more likely to be the head of single- parent families. It also leads to the greater likehood that single, divorced or widowed women will be poorer than their male counterparts because of less social security income or other retirement income in addition to higher female life expectancies. Women’s lower wages, lower retirement benefits and the increasing number of single mothers have led some scholars to talk about the “Feminization of Poverty.”

Federal policies

                       After the Second World War, by 1963, creation of jobs by President John F. Kennedy’s tax policies could not remove the problem of poverty. Poverty was still recognized as a major national problem. President Lyndon B. Johnson’s War on Poverty led to a host of programs that included Medicare, Medicaid, Food Stamps, Aid to Families with Dependent Children, and others. These entitlements eventually consumed half the federal budget and could not alleviate poverty. The U.S. economy had been devastated by the recession of 1979-83 when the United Statess manufacturing infrastructure was shattered by the Federal Reserve’s skyrocketing interest rates causing unemployment to shoot up by sixty-five percent in four years (Cook, 2007). By the end of the 1980s the economy was in another recession, leading to the election of Bill Clinton who in 1992 replaced the incumbent George H.W. Bush. The investment boom of the 1990s was fueled by foreign capital lured in by the Treasury’s strong dollar policies. Jobs were created as the dot.com bubble expanded, trade barriers fell, and utility trading giants like Enron took off. NAFTA was enacted to promote free trade, welfare-to-work brought low-income women into the job market, and the Earned Income Tax Credit was extended. The party ended when the stock market crashed in December 2000 and millions of people lost their retirement savings and other investments. Recession was returning even as George W. Bush was being declared president by the U.S. Supreme Court in December 2000. The economic crisis deepened after the September 11, 2001 attacks when $1.4 trillion in wealth vanished during the worst five days of the stock market since the Great Depression (Cook, 2007). Cook (2007) argues that today, poverty is becoming a national catastrophe. Cook (2007) argues that from 2002 through 2006 the economy was floated by the housing bubble, with many lower income people getting into homes of their own through the proliferation of sub prime mortgages. With the financial woes in late 2008, many American citizens are left with inflated home prices and no way to pay for them.

                      The 1960’s policy initiatives and declaration of ‘unconditional war on poverty’ by the then president Lyndon Johnson marked a discrete change in the federal government’s willingness to intervene for the purpose of improving the economic situation of poor Americans. Despite the billions of dollars spent on programs like CETA (Comprehensive Employment Training Act), The Manpower Development and Training Act, Head Start, and the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, the government efforts to deal with the origins of poverty have met with minimal success. During this period, implementation of the Social Security old-age program insured virtually all retired workers against the risk of outliving their savings. The Social Security Act of 1935 sought to protect the incomes of those who did not work because of age or a poor economy by establishing a federal framework for unemployment insurance, old-age benefits, and assistance to women. In early 1964, the two most pressing priorities of President Johnson’s antipoverty agenda involved passing a massive tax cut designed to stimulate the economy and organizing a task force to shape the ‘War on Poverty’. The Economic opportunity Act (EOA) signed by Johnson created a long list of programs designed to help individuals develop marketable skills, political power, and civic aptitude. But this anti-poverty legislation oversaw other programs like Community Action Program, Job Corps, VISTA, Head Start (1965), Legal Services (1965) which were not included in its framework. While extensive programs like the Food Stamp Program, Medicare for elderly, Medicaid applied to qualified poor residents, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act for poor students overshadowed the EOA. The Higher Education Act eased the financial burdens of millions of college students. The Civil Rights Act opened up new spaces in the American marketplace, while the Voting Rights Act did the same for the political marketplace. The Fair Housing Act established an important base of law to combat housing discrimination. As a result the EOA slowly lost importance. Again, Murray (1984) argues that welfare benefits had soared so high so as to make living in poverty a meaningful option for the poor. Even Burton (1992) has supported the above viewpoint and argues that the programs have done more to cause poverty than to alleviate it.

                          When Nixon assumed power, he tried to deal with poverty in a more direct way than emphasizing social programs. . Although President Nixon expressed dislike for much of the War on Poverty, his administration responded to public pressure by maintaining most programs and by expanding the welfare state through the liberalization of the Food Stamp program, the indexing of Social Security to inflation, and the passage of the Supplemental Security Income (SSI) program for disabled Americans (Rank, 2004). The Nixon administration also endorsed a “New Federalism” in which the federal government shifted more authority over social welfare enterprises to state and local governments. His plan to implement the ‘Family Assistance Plan’ (FAP) consisted of various income provisions, work provisions, and training provisions for those below the poverty line (Rank, 2004). It failed to pass the Senate much like the ‘Programs for Better Jobs and Income’ initiated by President Carter in later years.                                       Welfare reform continued as a focus of federal policy debates even after the legislative defeat of FAP. Even though a cash ‘Negative income Tax’ (NIT) for all poor persons never passed, the Food Stamp program provided a national benefit in food coupons that varied by family size, regardless of state of residence or living arrangements or marital status. The number of AFDC recipients increased from about 6 million to 11 million and the number of food stamp recipients, from about 1 million to 19 million during the Nixon administration (Danziger, 1999, p. 8). Danziger (1999) also argues that as higher cash and in-kind benefits became available to a larger percentage of poor people, the work disincentives and high budgetary costs of welfare programs were increasingly challenged. The public and policy makers came to view increased welfare recipients as evidence that the programs were subsidizing dependency and encouraging idleness.

                        Despite the failure to enact a guaranteed income program, both the number of recipients and the amount of money spent on welfare programs increased substantially during the 1970’s (Rank, 2004). Rank (2004) has given an overview of Reagan’s policies and noted that Reagan emphasized individual action unhampered by government interference, rejected the social engineering of the 1960’s and also supported federalism, that is, returning power to the states rather than centralizing them within the federal government. Reagan tried to address the problem and set the tone for welfare reform that occurred in 1990 during his successor’s administration. The Reagan administration thought eligibility for welfare benefits had increased so much, that many persons who were not “truly needy” were receiving benefits. The Reagan Administration opposed simultaneous receipt of wages and welfare benefits. Rather, it proposed that welfare become a safety net, providing cash assistance only for those unable to secure jobs.

                    The Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC), enacted in 1975, provides families of the working poor with a refundable income tax credit (i.e., the family receives a payment from the Internal Revenue Service if the credit due exceeds the income tax owed). Thus the EITC raises the effective wage of low-income families, is available to both one- and two-parent families, and does not require them to apply for welfare. The maximum EITC for a poor family was $400 in 1975 and rose to $550 by 1986 (Danziger, 1999, p. 14). The 1986 Tax Reform Act increased the EITC so that by 1990 a low-income working parent received a maximum credit of $953 (Danziger, 1999, p. 14). The number of families receiving credits increased from between 5 and 7.5 million families a year between 1975 and 1986 to more than 11 million by 1988 (Danziger, 1999, p. 14). Danziger, 1999 argues that as the expanded EITC supplements low earnings, it became easier for policy makers to emphasize welfare reform policies that could place recipients into any job, rather than training them for “good jobs.” Thus he argues that if a nonworking recipient took a low-wage job, a substantial EITC could make work pay as much as a higher-wage job would have paid in the absence of an EITC.

                         The Family Support Act (FSA) of 1988 expanded the scope of the AFDC program for two-parent families, instituted transitional child care and Medicaid for recipients leaving welfare for work, and added funds and required states to establish programs to move greater numbers of welfare recipients into employment. When the welfare rolls jumped in the late-1980s and early-1990s, from about 11 to about 14 million recipients, dissatisfaction with welfare again increased ( Danziger, 1999).    

                        President Nixon identified the two main economic problems, inflation and unemployment, that justify the need for economic recovery to the American worker. Reagan has emphasized despair caused by unemployment combined with high inflation. Reagan’s rhetorical construction of welfare recipients and the welfare system was aimed at reducing anxiety among Americans caused by increasing taxes, inflation and the continuous fear of losing jobs. To end this victimization, Reagan proposed a plan for economic recovery (Rank, 2004). Apart from cutting government spending, specifically spending on social programs, Reagan also proposed to have State governments assume control of Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) and the food stamps program in exchange for the Federal Government control of Medicaid. Although this proposal failed to reach the Congressional floor, his presentation of the proposal to exchange AFDC and food stamp program with Medicaid made poverty a local concern (Mark Robert Rank, 2004).  

                       Liberals and conservatives still disagreed on other goals of welfare-to-work programs. Liberals thought welfare reform should expand opportunities for welfare mothers to receive training and work experiences that would help them raise their families’ living standards by working more and at higher wages. Conservatives emphasized work requirements, obligations welfare mothers owed in return for government support whether or not their families’ incomes increased (Mead, 1992). 

                       In later years President Clinton’s approach also emphasized empowerment as a way of helping welfare recipients and to accumulate more savings without being penalized and expanding the earned income tax credit (Blank, 2007). By the mid-1990s, the focus of policy concern shifted from fighting poverty to reducing welfare dependence. President Clinton’s signing of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (the PRWORA) ended the entitlement to cash assistance and dramatically changed the nature of the social safety net. The Act created the Temporary Assistance to Needy Families Program (TANF). TANF began on July 1, 1997, provides cash assistance to indigent American families with dependent children through the United States Department of Health and Human Services (The Center for American Progress Task Force on Poverty, 2007).  Danziger, 1999 argues that each state can now decide which families to assist, subject only to a requirement that they receive “fair and equitable treatment.”  In instituting a block grant program, the PRWORA granted states the ability to design their own systems, as long as states met a set of basic federal requirements. The bill’s emphasis on ending welfare as an entitlement program, places a lifetime limit of five years on benefits paid by federal funds, and also aims to encourage two-parent families and discourages out-of-wedlock births. In granting states wider latitude for designing their own programs, some states have decided to place additional requirements on recipients. Although the law placed a time limit for benefits supported by federal funds of no more than 2 consecutive years and no more than 5 years over a lifetime, some states have enacted more stringent limits. All states, however, have allowed exceptions with the intent of not punishing children because their parents have gone over the time limit. Federal requirements have ensured some measure of uniformity across states, but the block grant approach has led individual states to distribute federal money in different ways. Certain states more actively encourage education, others use the money to help fund private enterprises helping job seekers. The PRWORA offers no opportunity to work in exchange for welfare benefits when a recipient reaches her lifetime limit of 60 months of federally-supported cash assistance. But the reform has certain limits. States may not use federal block grant funds to provide more than a cumulative lifetime total of 60 months of cash assistance to any welfare recipient, no matter how willing she might be to work for her benefits, and they have the option to set shorter time limits. States can grant exceptions to the lifetime limit and continue to use federal funds for up to 20 percent of the caseload. The extent of work expectations has also been increased. Single-parent recipients with no children under age one will be expected to work at least 30 hours per week by FY 2002 in order to maintain eligibility for cash assistance (Danziger, 1999, p 20). States can require participation in work or work-related activities regardless of the age of the youngest child. Thus PRWORA emerged from research that sought both to reduce poverty and welfare dependency (Danziger, 1999).  In the 1990s, following Clinton’s call to “end welfare as we know it,” policy makers escalated their demands for recipients to work and reduced government obligations toward and funds to serve them (Danziger, 1999).

                     When Bush took office in 2001, the U.S. was experiencing a national surplus, unemployment and poverty had been on the decline for years, and the economy was booming. Now, almost six years later, poverty is on the rise, healthcare coverage is on the decline, and the country is faced with the largest national deficit in history. Lower middle class families are slowly slipping below the poverty line and the poorest are becoming even more destitute. Most of these families are headed by women.

                      President Bush has extended the TANF. There has been a general economic stimulus policy initiative during the Bush administration but nothing targeting low income Americans has been enacted. President Bush signed the economic stimulus package (H.R. 5140) into law with the hope that it will provide a much-needed boost to the lagging economy. The package includes tax rebates for individuals, tax breaks for businesses, and a temporary increase of the Federal Housing Administration loans from $417,000 to $729,750 (White House report, 2008). More than 130 million people are expected to get tax rebates ranging from $300 to $1,200 per household for individuals earning $75,000 or less and couples earning up to $150,000 (White House report, 2008). While the stimulus package will provide much needed financial help to millions of people, it fails to target those most in need as it will not include an extension of unemployment benefits, energy assistance, food stamp benefits, or fiscal relief to states for Medicaid.                       

                  From the above analysis, the question arises whether poor are responsible for their own condition. The above analysis implies that recipients become dependent and lethargic due to vast welfare measures. Scholars such as Murray (1984) and Kilty and Segal (2006) have emphasized on individual factors. They argue that welfare measures and lack of spirit and motivation among indigents contribute poverty. Danziger, 1999 argues that during the Nixon era increased welfare measures encouraged idleness. Kilty and Segal, 2006 also argues that poor people can come out into a state of self-sufficiency from dependency by learning proper work attitude and skills. Kilty and Segal, 2006 argue the importance of welfare reform and a ‘tough love’ approach would ultimately help the poor by making them conscious of their condition and forcing them to take their own responsibility. Bill Clinton’s emphasis on ‘personal responsibility’ and measures to ‘end welfare as we know it’ in 1992 all supports the above argument.

                     Due to the implementation of TANF, the numbers of people on welfare have decreased. As a result more funds are accumulated. In 1996 the number of ADFC recipients was 12,644,076 while in 2001, the number of TANF recipients was 5,91, 811 and the poverty rate also reduced from 13.7 to 11.3 ( Kilty and Segal, 2006) and while in 2008 it is 1,628,422  ( US Dept of Health and Human Services). The share of single mothers on welfare (based on administrative caseload counts divided by population numbers) rose from 38 percent in 1969 to 48 percent in 1980, but had fallen to 30 percent by 1998 ( Kilty and Segal, 2006). These caseload changes are widespread, with every state in the country experiencing substantial caseload decline. This decline has been widely hailed by politicians as an indication that policies designed to reduce dependence on public assistance and move less-skilled adults into the labor market have been extremely effective ( Blank, 2007). But however Blank argues that declines in welfare do not affect the poverty rate. The poverty rate in 2007 was 12.5 percent, increasing slightly from its level of 12.3 percent in 2006. The poverty rate increased for four straight years from 2000 to 2004. In 2007, the poverty rate was 1.2 percentage points higher than it was in 2000 (Blank, 2007).     

States welfare initiatives

                      Most states took a significant decision about reform, and this decision was sensible in light of state goals and experience. A few states did not seriously make reform policy. New York was so deeply divided that it took no serious decisions about AFDC (Mead, 2002). Alabama and Missouri were pushed into reform by federal action and appeared to have little welfare policy of their own (Mead, 2002). In several other Southern states (Florida, North Carolina), policymaking appeared to be casual and personalized, with the governor or legislators offering reform plans with, apparently, little inquiry or evidence behind them( Mead, 2002) . Texas policymaking was incoherent as the state claimed to pursue work first but based its policy on an experimental program and focused far more on education and training (Mead, 2002). States have always emphasized on reform. But sometimes lower contribution towards these plans result in total failure of the program. Mead (2002) argues that in Florida and Georgia, however, officialdom was dragged into reform but showed little commitment to it. In Arizona and California, the agency or major localities had been heavily committed to a skills-oriented approach to welfare and resisted the shift toward work first. In Texas, welfare reform was a lower priority to administrators than rebuilding non-welfare employment programs and other initiatives. In Colorado and New Jersey, local agencies had a history of defiance toward the state government, and this prevented them from fully endorsing reforms decided in the capital. Mead (2002) argues that inspite of establishment of Employment Service (ES), a federally-funded job placement agency, and training programs under the federal Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA), poverty rate did not improve. After national welfare work programs were first enacted in 1967, the ES engaged in welfare practices. But because the ES’s routine stressed serving job seekers who came to it voluntarily, it generally performed poorly with welfare clients (Mead, 2002). These jobseekers came to it on a mandatory basis, as a condition of receiving aid. To succeed with them, the agency had to enforce work but also support employment with special services. The ES often found both these roles uncongenial (Mead, 2002). The ES was denoted to the role of contractor to welfare and later in 1988 the Workforce Investment Act (WIA) merged the ES, JTPA, and other non-welfare work programs. But this merging also created confusion. The problems included lack of clear procedures to refer clients to WIA, to serve them there, or to report results back to welfare. The states that lacked coordination and inadequate management information systems (MIS) were Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Washington, West Virginia, Florida, Georgia, and Tennessee.      

                         Colorado’s public reform has been associated with decline in poverty rate. By the close of 2000, Colorado’s unemployment rate dropped to 2.6 percent, personal income showed steady gains, state welfare cases declined dramatically, and State legislators wrestled with an estimated $833 million revenue surplus (Colorado Fiscal Policy Institute, 2001). But inspite of all the above facts poverty still persists as expenses like child care, out-of-pocket medical expenses and geo-graphic differences in housing costs increased. The increases occurred even after adjusting for income support such as tax relief, food stamps and school lunch programs, housing subsidies and energy assistance. A report published in 2001 by the Colorado Fiscal Policy Institute determined that a single parent with two small children living in Denver County would need to earn an annual salary of approximately $39,924 in order to meet their basic needs such as housing, food, health care, childcare and transportation without public or private assistance. Even child poverty rate is high in Colorado. About 180,000 children, 15.7 percent of the state total was living in poverty in Colorado in 2006, a 73 percent increase since 2000 (Frosch, 2008). The state of Colorado purchases childcare for income eligible families through the Colorado Child Care Assistance Program (CCCAP). The state allows individual counties to set the purchase price of childcare and make payments to providers from a combination of parental fees and federal, state and county funds. However, the Colorado Office of Resource and Referral Agencies (CORRA) found in a 2001 study that the average county payment fell below 75 percent of market value (Colorado Fiscal Policy Institute, 2001, pp 9). As a result counties forced providers to subsidize the cost of service to low-income families, which many were simply unwilling to do when limited slots could be filled with families that could afford to pay full rates. Other providers that chose not to simply refuse service to CCCAP families saved money by limiting the number of children on CCCAP that they would accept, cutting programs, or reducing workers’ wages. All of these actions limited availability and sacrificed quality of care to low-income children. Poverty still exists in Colorado despite initiatives to alleviate poverty as too many working families lives with incomes below the poverty line and more families earn wages simply too low to afford their basic needs. The Colorado government started the Common Good Caucus in 2007 to develop a 2009 agenda, emphasizing on K-12 education and determined to bring technologies out of the laboratory and into the marketplace by investing $4.5 million dollars in bioscience industry, supporting the Clean Energy fund to reduce high family utility costs , creating the Colorado Solar Incentive Program with $2 million to provide rebates for photovoltaic and solar thermal systems to help Coloradans join the new energy economy and cut their utility bills ( State Rep. Kerr Andy, 2008). Poor people cannot pay the full cost of heating and lighting their homes. Governments and social service agencies have long assisted low-income ratepayers in paying their bills through such programs as the Low Income Home Energy Assistance Program (LIHEAP), charitable fuel funds, levelized billing, discounts, home weatherization, energy efficiency, energy usage education and debt management. If all Americans live in weatherized and energy efficient homes and have the income to pay their full share of utility bills, all other ratepayers would save nearly $6 billion in poverty costs, including fuel assistance, lifeline and other rate assistance, weatherization and efficiency costs, the costs of late payments and service disconnections (Oppenheim and MacGregor, 2007).      

                                      

Recommendations  

              From the above analysis it is clear that poverty remains pervasive due to the economic system, social stratification and welfare measures. According to Iceland (2003) on one hand, economic growth and technological changes contribute to increase in wages and overall standard of living. Economic growth accompanied by rising education levels improves the condition of people. On the other hand, the market economy often exerts a contrary effect on poverty levels (Iceland, 2003). To maximize profits, businesses usually seek to pay low wage to workers which increase inequality and poverty. Again policy may increase or decrease the harmful effects of inequality. Combining the factors emphasized by both liberals and conservatives, poverty is multifaceted. I believe that a strong national effort would alleviate poverty. Employment opportunities for all so that that worker and their families can avoid poverty, meet basic needs and save for the future. Increasing hourly wages would definitely improve the condition of these people. A smaller share of unemployed low-wage workers, receive unemployment insurance benefits. I believe that states (with federal help) should reform “monetary eligibility” rules that screen out low-wage workers, broaden eligibility for part-time workers and workers who have lost employment as a result of compelling family circumstances. Workers should use this period of unemployment and the money received from the Unemployment Insurance System and upgrade their skills and qualifications. Thus adults should have opportunities throughout their lives to connect to work, get more education, and live in a good neighborhood and move up in the workforce.

                         Child care assistance to low-income families and emphasis on K 12 education would definitely reduce the rate of poverty in the United States.                          Low-income youth hardly attend college than their higher income peers. Pell Grants play a crucial role for lower-income students. Simplification of the Pell grant application process, and encouragement of institutions to do more to raise student completion rates would definitely improve the condition. Expansion of Pell Grants would make higher education accessible to residents of each state. The states at the same time should also develop strategies to make postsecondary education affordable for all residents. Expansion of the Saver’s Credit would encourage saving for education, homeownership, and retirement. As a result all Americans would have assets that would allow them to weather periods of volatility and to have the resources that may be essential for upward economic mobility. Apart from Saver’s credit, expansion of Earned Income Tax Credit would raise incomes and helps families build assets. Thus there should be opportunity for all so that children grow up in conditions that maximize their opportunities for success.

          

  

                           

                       

                                   

                            

                            

                      

                             

References:

Blank Rebecca (2007); Poverty to Prosperity; Center for American task force on Poverty;

www.americanprogress.org/issues/2007/04/pdf/poverty_report.pdf – Similar pages

Colorado Statewide Homeless Count (2007), School of Public Affairs, University of Colorado, denver.www.dola.state.co.us/cdh/Publications/Winter_2007_Statewide_PIT.pdf – Similar pages

Cook Richard (2007), Poverty in America

www.globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=va&aid=5905 – 61k – Cached – Similar pages

Corley Mary Ann (2003); Poverty, Racism and Literacy; ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult Career and Vocational Education

Danziger Sheldon (1999), Welfare Reform Policy from Nixon to Clinton, Institute for  for Social Research, University of Michigan.

De Navas-Walt, et al., “Income, Poverty and Health Insurance in the United States: 2005.

Diana Pearce Diana Pearce (1978) "The Feminization of Poverty: Women, Work, and Welfare," Urban and Social Change Review.

Iceland John (2006); Poverty in America; University of California Press

Isidore Chris (2008); the Trillion-Dollar Mortgage Bomb,

money.cnn.com/2008/04/21/news/economy/fannie_freddie/?postversion=2008042103 – 66k –

James Tobin (1993); Poverty in Relation to macroeconomic Trends, Cycles and Policies; Cowles foundation discussion paper.

                  

Garima Dasgupta
http://www.articlesbase.com/politics-articles/anti-poverty-688499.html